ГДЗ Упражнение 53, Section 1-4, Unit 3. Цивилизация и прогресс из Английский язык Биболетова М.З., Бабушис Е.Е. 2015, 2016 10 класс

The computer has been a life-transforming invention. British mathematician Charles Babbage designed a form of computer in the mid-1830s.A hundred years ago the French scientist Pascal Blaise created the special machine. It represented a wheel which inexplicably could carry out the elementary arithmetic actions and was a computer prototype. Thanks to this invention, a whole generation has grown up with calculators, windows, icons, computer games and word processors, and the Internet and e-mail have transformed communication and information. It was not until more than a century later that Charles's theory was put into practice.

Перевод:

Компьютер был преобразовывающим жизнь изобретением. Британский математик Чарльз Беббидж проектировал форму компьютера в середине 1830-х. Сто лет назад французский ученый Паскаль Блез создал особую машину. Он представлял собой колесо, которое необъяснимо могло выполнить элементарные арифметические действия и стало компьютерным прототипом. Благодаря этому изобретению целое поколение выросло с калькуляторами, окнами, символами, компьютерными играми и текстовыми процессорами, а Интернет и электронная почта преобразовали коммуникацию и информацию. Только в больше чем век спустя, теория Чарльза была осуществлена.

Pencil, from Old French pincel, а small paintbrush, from Latin penicil-Ius а «little tail» is an artist's fine brush of camel hair, also used for writing before modern lead or chalk pencils; the meaning of «graphite writing implement» apparently evolved late in the 16th century. Though the archetypal pencil was an artist's brush, the stylus, a thin metal stick used for scratching in papyrus or wax tablets, was used extensively by the Romans.

Some time before 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), an enormous deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England. The locals found that it was very useful for marking sheep. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks. This remains the only large scale deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form.Chemistry was in its infancy and the substance was thought to be a form of lead. Consequently, it was called plumbago (Latin for «lead ore»).The black core of pencils never contained the element lead. The words for pencil in German (Bleistift), Irish (Peann Luaidhe), Arabic and other languages literally mean lead pen.

Because graphite is soft, it requires some form of encasement. Graphite sticks were initially wrapped in string or sheepskin for stability. The news of the usefulness of these early pencils spread far and wide, attracting the attention of artists all over the known world.

England continued to enjoy a monopoly on the production of pencils until a method of reconstituting the graphite powder was found. The distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s. The town of Keswick, near the original findings of block graphite, still manufactures pencils, the factory also being the location of the Cumberland pencil museum.

The first attempt to manufacture graphite sticks from powdered graphite was in Nuremberg, Germany, in 1662. It used a mixture of graphite, sulphur, and antimony.

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